LAPORAN PRAKTIKUM MORFOLOGI TUMBUHAN

PENDAHULUAN

1.1. LATAR BELAKANG

Batang merupakan bagian tubuh tumbuhan yang amat penting. Batang dapat disamakan dengan sumbu tubuh tumbuhan. Pada umumnya, batang berbentuk bulat seperti silinder dan sebagian kecil memiliki bentuk lain, akan tetapi selalu bersifat aktinomorf, artinya dapat dengan sejumlah bidang menjadi dua bagian yang setangkup. Batang terdiri atas ruas-ruas dan buku-buku, dan pada buku-buku inilah terdapat daun. Arah tumbuh batang biasanya ke atas, menuju cahaya fototrop/heliotrop. Batang selalu bertambah panjang di ujungnya, sehingga disebut batang memiliki pertumbuhan yang tidak terbatas. Batang juga mengadakan percabangan dan selama hidupnya tumbuhan tidak digugurkan, kecuali kadang-kadang cabang atau ranting yang kecil. Pada umumnya batang tidak berwarna hijau, kecuali tumbuhan yang umurnya pendek. Misalnya rumput dan waktu batang masih muda. Pada praktikum kali ini kami telah meneliti beberapa batang pada beberapa tumbuhan seperti bayam (Amaranthus spinousus), Beluntas (Pluchea indica), serta rumput gerinting (Cynodon dactylon).

1.2. DASAR TEORI

Batang dikelompokkan menjadi tiga jenis, yaitu batang berkayu, batang rumput, dan batang basah. Batang berkayu memiliki kambium. Kambium mengalami dua arah pertumbuhan, yaitu ke arah dalam dan ke arah luar. Ke arah dalam, kambium membentuk kayu, sedangkan ke arah luar, kambium membentuk kulit. Karena pertumbuhan kambium inilah batang tumbuhan bertambah besar. Contoh tumbuhan yang memilki batang jenis ini antara lain, jati, mangga, dan maranti. Tumbuhan batang rumput memiliki ruas-ruas dan umumnya berongga. Batang jenis ini mudah patah dan tumbuhannya tidak sebesar batang berkayu. Misalnya tanaman padi, jagung dan rumput. Tumbuhan batang basah memiliki batang yang lunak dan berair, misalnya bayam.

1.3. TUJUAN

1.      Untuk mengetahui jenis-jenis batang

2.      Untuk mengetahui ruas-ruas dan buku-buku pada batang

3.      Untuk membedakan ciri-ciri batang basah, berkayu dan rumput

PEMBAHASAN

2.1. ALAT DAN BAHAN

1.      Bayam

2.      Rumput gerinting

3.      Beluntas

2.2. PROSEDUR KERJA

1.      Amatilah ketiga tumbuhan tersebut

2.      Tulislah nama bahan sesuai dengan aturan binominal nomeniaktur

3.      Gambarlah ketiga tumbuhan tersebut

4.      Berilah keterangan mdngenai ruas-ruas buku

5.      Tulis jenis batang di bawah gambar

2.3. HASIL PENGAMATAN

             

            Bayam (Amaranthus spinousus)           Beluntas (Pluchea indica)

            (Batang basah)                                        (Batang berkayu)

                                    

              Rumput gerinting (Cynodon dactylon)   Ruas-ruas batang

              (Batang rumput)

(Nodus)

2.4. PENJELASAN

1. Bayam

Bayam (Amaranthus spp.) merupakan tumbuhan yang biasa ditanam untuk dikonsumsi daunnya sebagai sayuran hijau. Tumbuhan ini berasal dariAmerika tropik namun sekarang tersebar ke seluruh dunia. Tumbuhan ini dikenal sebagai sayuran sumber zat besi yang penting. Terna semusim yang menyukai iklim hangat dan cahaya kuat. Bayam relatif tahan terhadap pencahayaan langsung karena merupakan tumbuhan C4. Batang berair dan kurang berkayu. Daun bertangkai, berbentuk bulat telur, lemas, berwarna hijau, merah, atau hijau keputihan. Bunga tersusun majemuk tipe tukal yang rapat, bagian bawah duduk di ketiak, bagian atas berkumpul menjadi karangan bunga di ujung tangkai dan ketiak percabangan. Bijinya berwarna hitam, kecil dan keras.

2. Rumput Gerinting

Rumput grinting (Cynodon dactylon) adalah jenis rumput yang memiliki kemampuan agak berlebihan dalam halbertahan hidup dibandingkan rumput jenis lain seperti rumput teki, rumput gajah, rumput manila, dan sebagainya. Bahkan rumput ini mampubertahan hidup di lahan yang tandus dalam musim kemarau sekalipun pertumbuhan daunnya menjadi minim. Ketika terkena mata bajak dan garupun rumput ini akan tetap terus hidup selama akarnya bersinggungan dengan tanah. Cynodon dactylon dapat dideskripsikan: memiliki terna bertahunan yang berstolon,merumput dengan rimpang bawah tanah menembus tanah sampai kedalaman 1m atau lebih bahkan ada literature yang menjelaskan sampai padakedalaman 2 m. Lamina melancip-memita, berlapis lilin putihkeabu-abuan tipis di permukaan bawah, gundul atau berambut padapermukaan atas. Pelepah daun panjang, halus, berambut atau gundul;ligula tampak jelas berupa cincin rambut-rambut putih. Bunga tegak,seperti tandan. Bijinya membulat telur, kuning sampai kemerahan.

3.Beluntas

Beluntas merupakan tumbuhan semak yang bercabang banyak, berusuk halus, dan berbulu lembut. Umumnya tumbuhan ini ditanam sebagai tanaman pagar atau bahkan tumbuh liar, tingginya bisa mencapai 3 meter apabila tidak dipangkas, sehingga seringkali ditanam sebagai pagar pekarangan. Beluntas dapat tumbuh di daerah kering pada tanah yang keras dan berbatu, pada daerah dataran rendah hingga dataran tinggi pada ketinggian 1000 meter dari permukaan laut, memerlukan cukup cahaya matahari atau sedikit naungan, dan perbanyakannya dapat dilakukan dengan setek batang pada batang yang cukup tua. Daun bertangkai pendek, letaknya berselang-seling, berbentuk bulat telur sunsang, ujung bundar melancip. Tepi daun bergerigi, berwarna hijau terang, bunga keluar di ujung cabang dan ketiak daun, berbentuk bunga bonggol, bergagang atau duduk, dan berwarna ungu. Buahnya longkah agak berbentuk gasing, berwarna cokelat dengan bersudut putih.

Sesak

Tanpa terasa aku mulai tergugah

Tergugah untuk memikirkan apa yang telah terjadi
Aku tak mengerti dengan semua ini
Seakan-akan aku tak pernah tahu apa-apa
Mengapa semuanya menjadi seperti ini?
Daun yang hijau telah menjadi coklat
Pohon yang kokoh kini berubah menjadi rapuh
Dan akar yang seolah-okah berperan sebagai penunjang
Kini telah tak berfungsi dengan baik
Aku tak tahu dan tak mengerti dengan apa yang telah terjadi
Tapi aku sadar akan apa yang telah terjadi dan tercatat
Mungkin umurku berkurang seiring berjalannya waktu
Tapi salah, dosa dan nista yang aku lakukan semakin bertambah seiring berkurangnya umurku
Aku telah berbuat jauh dari syariat-Mu, ya Allah
Aku telah melanggar ajaran dan sunnahmu, ya Rasul
Dengan cara apa ku harus menebusnya?
Apa aku harus bersujud kepada-Mu tanpa melewatkan sedetik pun berlalu hingga ku menutup mata?
Apa aku harus mengingat-Mu selama darahku masih mengalir?
Ataukah ku harus menengadahkan tangan, meminta ampun kepada-Mu setiap saat dalam sisa umurku?
Aku rela melakukan semua itu demi mendapat ampunan dari-Mu
Sesaj rasanya dadaku saat mengingat dosa-dosa yang aku lakukan di masa lalu
Aku tak bisa, dan aku tak tahan merenungkannya
Akh, apalah guna menyesal?
Sekarang yang ada hanya akan menambah sesak dalam dada dan sakit dalam hati
Yang ada sekarang hanyalah kata taubat,
Taubat bagi dzat yang memiliki dan menguasai segala sesuatu
Allah 'Azza wa Jalla.

By : Wilda Ayu Ariska

De Javu

Kertas putih itu kini telah menjadi kelam dan buram

Bertaburan bercak dan noda pena yang tak tahu maksudnya
Semuanya telah berubah, tak ada satu pun yang abadi
Semuanya pun telah terjadi, rasanya seperti Deja Vu
Bingung, itulah yang kini dirasakan dalam lubuk hati
Seperti telah dialami sebelumnya, kejadian yang menyakitkan itu dalam mimpi atau pun sekedar khayalan dan angan-angan
Akhirnya, ku putuskan mencorat – coret kertas putih nan suci itu dengan maksud agar tak bosan dan tak jenuh dipandang
Aku ingin menjadikan kertas itu sebagai karya seni yang tak ternilai dengan materi
Tapi, bukanlah keindahan yang ku dapat melainkan keanehan yang ku rasakan pada kertas baru itu
Coretan yang tak perlu pun menghiasi dan mendominasi kertas putih itu
Mengapa semuanya menjadi seperti ini?
Aku mengalami paramnesia yang tak nyaman untuk dinikmati
Kini apa yang ada dalam mimpi burukku terjadi di kehidupan nyata
Sekarang apa yang telah menghiasi lamunan kesendirianku benar – benar adanya
Orang tuaku tak sedikit pun memperdulikan dan mengerti keadaanku yang sebenarnya
Orang yang aku anggap sebagai sahabat, ternyata dia hanyalah seorang manusia lemah yang tak bisa menerima kekurangan sahabatnya
Bahkan, orang yang sangat aku cintai telah pergi entah kemana tanpa memberikan isyarat padaku
Memang, rasanya seperti tidak adil bagiku
Aku suka kejutan, itu semua sama sekali bukan kejutan
Tapi pada akhirnya aku sadar bahwa tak sedikit pun yang tuhan berikan padaku itu salah
Itulah yang terbaik bagiku dan bagi semua
Kini aku menjadi seorang yang selalu mempersiapkan diri sebelum menghadapi hari-hari
Kini aku menjadi seorang yang selalu berhati-hati dalam menjalani kehidupan dunia yang bersifat surgawi
Aku rasa inilah diriku, aku bahagia dengan semua ini
Deja Vu?
Ya, aku menjadi lebih tahu sesuatu dari sebelumnya.


By:Wilda Ayu Ariska

Manfaat Ketela Pohon Bagi Kesehatan

Ketela pohon atau singkong, dalam bahasa Inggris bernama cassava, adalah pohon tahunan tropika dan subtropika dari keluarga Euphorbiaceae. Umbinya dikenal sebagai makanan pokok penghasil karbohidrat dan daunnya sebagai sayuran. Di Indonesia sendiri ketela pohon menjadi makanan bahan pangan pokok setelah beras dan jagung.

Manfaat daun ketela pohon sebagai bahan sayuran memiliki protein cukup tinggi dan Umbi singkong merupakan sumber energi yang kaya karbohidrat namun sangat miskin protein. Kayunya bisa digunakan sebagai pagar kebun atau di desa-desa sering digunakan sebagai kayu bakar untuk memasak. Dengan perkembangan teknologi ketela pohon dijadikan bahan dasar pada industri makanan dan bahan baku industri pakan. Selain itu digunakan pula pada industri obat-obatan.

Ketela pohon sangat berkhasiat untuk menyembuhkan berbagai macam penyakit diantaranya yaitu Reumatik, Demam, Sakit kepala, Diare, Cacingan, Mata kabur; Nafsu makan, Luka bernanah, Luka baru kena panas.
Cara pengolahannya :


1. Reumatik


Cara pertama : 5 lembar daun ubi kayu, 1/4 sendok kapur sirih. kedua bahan tersebut ditumbuk halus digunakan sebagai bedak/bobok pada bagian yang sakit.
Cara kedua : 1 potong batang ubi kayu direbus dengan 5 gelas air sampai mendidih hingga tinggal 4 gelas, kemudian disaring untuk diambil airnya kemudian diminum 2 kali sehari, pagi dan sore.


2. Demam


Cara pertama : 1 potong batang daun ubi kayu direbus dengan 3 gelas air sampai mendidih,
kemudian disaring untuk diambil airnya kemudian diminum 2 kali sehari, pagi dan sore.
Cara kedua : 3 lembar daun ubi kayu ditumbuk halus dipergunakan sebagai kompres.


3. Sakit Kepala


Caranya : 3 lembar daun ubi kayu ditumbuk halus kemudian dipergunakan sebagai kompres.


4. Diare


Caranya : 7 lembar daun ubi kayu direbus dengan 4 gelas air sampai mendidih hingga
tinggal 2 gelas, kemudian disaring untuk diambil airnya kemudian diminum 2 kali sehari, pagi dan sore.


5. Mengusir cacing perut


Caranya : kulit batang ubi kayu secukupnya direbus dengan 3 gelas air sampai mendidih hingga tinggal 1 gelas, kemudian disaring untuk diambil airnya dan diminum menjelang tidur malam.


6. Mata sering kabur


Caranya : daun ubi kayu secukupnya direbus, diberi bumbu garam dan bawang putih
secukupnya kemudian dimakan bersama nasi setiap hari.


7. Menambah nafsu makan


Caranya : daun ubi kayu secukupnya direbus, diberi bumbu garam dan bawang putih
secukupnya kemudian dimakan bersama nasi dan sambal tomat.


8. Luka bernanah


Caranya : 1 potong buah ubi kayu diparut kemudian dibobokan pada bagian tubuh yang luka


9. Luka baru kena barang panas


1 potong buah ubi kayu diparut dan diperas untuk diambil airnya, dan dibiarkan beberapa saat sampai tepungmengendap kemudian tepung dioleskan pada bagian tubuh yang
luka.

Kandungan gizi daun ketela pohon


1. Memiliki kadar protein cukup tinggi, sumber energi yang setara dengan karbohidrat, 4 kalori setiap gram protein.


2. Zat aktif yang dikandungnya dapat digunakan untuk bahan obat-obatan


3. Sumber Vitamin A, setiap 100 gram, mempunyai kandungan vitamin A mencapai 3.300 RE, kesehatan mata anda akan lebih baik.


4. Kandungan serat yang tinggi, dapat membantu buang air besar menjadi lebih teratur dan lancar dan mencegah kanker usus dan penyakit jantung.


5. Kandungan vit c per 100 gram daun singkong mencapai 275 mg, anda bisa terbebas dari sariawan dan kekebalan tubuh anda bisa lebih terjaga dengan asupan vitamin C.

Niqab

Niqāb

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"ruband" redirects here. For the village in Iran, see Ruband, Iran.

Woman wearing niqab in Syria

A niqab (Arabic: نِقاب‎ niqāb , "veil" or "mask"; also called a ruband ) is a cloth which covers the face as a part of sartorial hijab. It is worn by someMuslim women in public areas and in front of non-mahram adult males. The niqab is more commonly worn in the Arab countries of the Arabian Peninsula such as Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and the UAE. Various forms of niqab are also worn in countries such as Afghanistan,Pakistan, Egypt, some parts of Israel, southern provinces of Iran, and other areas with sizeable Muslim populations.

Because of the wide variety of hijab worn in the Muslim world, it can be difficult to definitively distinguish between one type of veil and another. The terms niqab and burqa are often incorrectly used interchangeably; a niqab covers the face while a burqa covers the whole body from the top of the head to the ground.

Etymology

Women who wear the niqab are often called niqābīah ; this word is used both as a noun and as an adjective. However, the correct form منتقبةmuntaqabah / muntaqibah  (plural muntaqabāt / muntaqibāt ) as niqābīah  is used in a derogatory manner (much as with ḥijābīah  versusمحجبة muḥajjabah ).^[1] Colloquially, women in niqab are called منقبة munaqqabah , with the plural منقبات munaqqabāt .

Overview

It is sometimes alleged that the face-veil was originally part of women's dress among certain classes in the Byzantine Empire and was adopted into Muslim culture during the Arab conquest of the Middle East.^[2] However, although Byzantine art before Islam commonly depicts women with veiled heads or covered hair, it does not depict women with veiled faces. In addition, the Greek geographer Strabo, writing in the first century AD, refers to some Persian women veiling their faces;^{[3][not in citation given]} and the early third-century Christian writer Tertullian clearly refers in his treatise The Veiling of Virgins to some pagan women of "Arabia" wearing a veil that covers not only their head but also the entire face.^[4] These primary sources show that some women in Arabia and Persia veiled their faces long before Islam. Some interpretations say that a veil is not compulsory in front of blind, asexual or gay men.^[5][6][7]

Niqab in Islam

Rationale

There is a difference of opinion amongst scholars in Islam whether the niqab is an obligatory form of hijab or if it is merely permissible or cultural. The niqab has continued to arouse debate between Muslim scholars and jurists both past and present concerning whether it is fard (obligatory), mustahabb(recommended/preferable), or cultural.^[8] Many Muslims use the justification for Niqab, that a woman's awrah in front of unrelated men is her entire body including her face and hands.^{[9][10][11][12] [13][14][15][16][17]}

Muslim women in several countries, including Saudi Arabia, veil their faces because they believe the face of a woman is considered awrah. Awrah denotes the parts of the body that are not meant to be exposed in public.^[18] Wearing the niqab is not exclusive to the Salafi movement and other Muslims whetherSufi, Shi'a or Ibadi, regard niqab as mustahabb (recommended, an additional act of worship to Allah).^[19] [20]

The claimed rationale of the niqab comes from the Qur'an and Hadith. It was known that the wives of the Prophet Muhammad covered themselves around men they did not know. However the Quran explicitly states that the wives of the Prophet are held to a different standard.^[21] It is claimed that under Islam the niqab is a requirement for all women, since womanhood is mentioned along with the wives of Muhammad in the Qur'anic dictat to cover.^[22] The following verse from the Qur'an is cited as support for this:^[23]

"O Prophet! Tell your wives and your daughters, and the believing women, to draw their cloaks (veils) over their bodies. That will be better that they should be known (as respectable woman) so as not to be annoyed. And Allah is Ever Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful."^{[Quran 33:59 (Translated by Ahmed Ali)]}

This verse was in response to harassment on the part of the "hypocrites",^[24] although it does not clearly refer to covering the face itself.

It is also argued by some Muslims that the reasons for the niqab are to keep Muslim women from worrying about their appearances and to conceal their looks.^[23][25]

Hadith

The hadith (Arabic plural: ahādīth) are narrations originating from the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

The Arabic word jilbāb is used in the following traditions:

§                    Narrated Aisha: The woman is to bring down her Jilbāb from over her head and [then place it] upon her face. Bukhari:6:60:282, Sunnan Abu Dawud 32:4091

§                    Narrated Aisha: The riders used to pass by us when we were with the Messenger of Allaah in ihrām When they came near, each of us would lower her Jilbāb from her head over her face, and when they passed by we would uncover our faces. 1:1833

§                    Narrated Aisha: Safwaan ibn al-Mu’attal al-Sulami al Dhakwaani was lagging behind the army. She said, “He came to where I had stopped and saw the black shape of a person sleeping. He recognized me when he saw me, because he had seen me before Hijāb was enjoined. I woke up when I heard him saying ‘Inna Lillaahi wa inna ilayhi raaji’oon (verily to Allaah we belong and unto Him is our return),’ and I covered my face with my Jilbāb Sahih Muslim, 2:2770

§                    Narrated‘Aasim al-Ahwal: We used to enter upon Hafsah bint Sirīn who had put her Jilbāb thus and covered her face with it, and we would say to her: May Allah have mercy on you. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): “And as for women past childbearing who do not expect wedlock, it is no sin on them if they discard their (outer) clothing in such a way as not to show their adornment” [al-Noor 24:60]. And she would say to us: What comes after that (of the āyah)? We would say: “But to refrain (i.e. not to discard their outer clothing) is better for them”. And so she said: [Referring to, ‘But to refrain is better for them’], “It is to keep the Jilbāb.” Sahih al-Bukhari, []

§                    Narrated Ibn ‘Abbās: Allah commanded the believing women, when going out of their homes for some need, to cover their faces from above their heads with their Jilbābs, leaving one eye(or both) to see the path.^[26]

§                    From Asmā’ bint Abi Bakr, that she said, “We are used to cover our faces from the men, and cut our hair before that in Ihrām (for Hajj).^[27]

§                    From Asmā’ bint Abi Bakr, We would cover our faces while we were Muhrim, and while doing that we would be with Asmā’ bint Abi Bakr As-Siddeeq.^[28]

§                    From Ibn Abi Khaythamah, We entered upon Umm Al-Mu’minīn on Yawm At-Tarwayah and we said to her, ‘Oh Mother of the Believers! Here is a woman who refuses to cover her face and she is a Muhrimah (in ihrām). So ‘Aa’ishah lifted her Khimār from her chest, and covered the woman’s face with it.^[29]

§                    Narrated Aisha: "When (the Verse): "They should draw their veils over their Juyubihinna," was revealed, (the ladies) cut their waist sheets at the edges and covered their faces with the cut pieces. Sahih al-Bukhari, []

§                    Narrated 'Aisha: The Apostle of Allah used to offer the Fajr prayer and some believing women covered with their veiling sheets used to attend the Fajr prayer with him and then they would return to their homes unrecognized Sahih al-Bukhari, []

§                    Narrated Um 'Atiya: We were ordered to bring out our menstruating women and veiled women in the religious gatherings and invocation of Muslims on the two 'Eid festivals. These menstruating women were to keep away from their Musalla. A woman asked, "O Allah's Apostle ' What about one who does not have a niqab?" He said, "Let her share the veil of her companion." Sahih al-Bukhari, []

§                    From Anas that the Muhammad said: And if one of the women of Paradise looked at the earth, she would fill the whole space between them the earth and the heaven with light, and would fill whatever is in between them, with perfume, and the veil of her face is better than the whole world and whatever is in it."Sahih al-Bukhari, []

§                    Narrated Thabit ibn Qays : A woman called Umm Khallad came to the Prophet while she was veiled. She was searching for her son who had been killed in the battle. Some of the Companions of the Prophet said to her: You have come here asking for your son while veiling your face? She said: If I am afflicted with the loss of my son, I shall not suffer the loss of my modesty. The Apostle of Allah said: You will get the reward of two martyrs for your son. She asked: Why is that so, oh Prophet of Allah? He replied: Because the people of the Book have killed him."Sahih al-Bukhari, []

§                    All of a woman is awrah. Whenever she leaves her home Satan reaches by her."2:311

Criticism

Sheikh Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, previous dean of Cairo's Al-Azhar University, called full-face veiling a custom that has nothing to do with the Islamic faith. “The niqab is a cultural tradition and has nothing to do with Islam.”^[30] The decision came from an incident in which he forced a school girl to remove her niqab during a visit to an Al-Azhar school, when Tantawy reportedly said that he would call for an official ban for the face veil in Islamic schools. Tantawy's decision stems from his views that more younger Muslims have lost touch with traditional Islamic scholarship and have come under the influence of extremist imams who have little or no formal training in Islamic scholarship.

In Europe, the niqab is controversial, and it has been banned in public in France, Belgium and The Netherlands.^[31]

Styles

A woman wearing a niqab in Bayda, Libya

A woman wearing a niqab in Monterey, California

A woman wearing a niqab in Yemen

There are many styles of niqab and other facial veils worn by Muslim women around the world. The two most common forms are the half niqab and thegulf-style or full niqab.

The half niqab is a simple length of fabric with elastic or ties and is worn around the face. This garment typically leaves the eyes and part of the forehead visible.

The gulf-style or full niqab completely covers the face. It consists of an upper band that is tied around the forehead, together with a long wide piece of fabric which covers the face, leaving an opening for the eyes. Many full niqab have two or more sheer layers attached to the upper band, which can be worn flipped down to cover the eyes or left over the top of the head. Contrary to common belief, eyeveils do not generally restrict vision any more than a dark pair of sunglasses would. While a person looking at a woman wearing a niqab with an eyeveil would not be able to see her eyes, the woman wearing the niqab would be able to see out through the thin fabric.

Other less common and more cultural or national forms of niqab include the Afghan style burqa, a long pleated gown that extends from the head to the feet with a small crocheted grille over the face.^[1] The Pak Chador is a relatively new style from Pakistan, which consists of a large triangular scarf with two additional pieces.^[1] A thin band on one edge is tied behind the head so as to keep the chador on, and then another larger rectangular piece is attached to one end of the triangle and is worn over the face, and the simple hijāb wrapped, pinned or tied in a certain way so as to cover the wearer's face.

Other common styles of clothing popularly worn with a niqab in Western countries include the khimar, a semi-circular flare of fabric with an opening for the face and a small triangular underscarf. A khimar is usually bust-level or longer, and can also be worn without the niqab. It is considered a fairly easy form of headscarf to wear, as there are no pins or fasteners; it is simply pulled over the head. Gloves are also sometimes worn with the niqab, because many munaqabāt believe no part of the skin should be visible other than the area immediately around the eyes or because they do not want to be put in a position where they would touch the hand of an unrelated man (for instance, when accepting change from a cashier).

Most munaqabāt also wear an overgarment (jilbab, abaya etc.) over their clothing, though some munaqabat in Western countries wear a long, loose tunic and skirt instead of a one-piece overgarment.

[edit]In different countries

An Iranian Arab wearing a niqab inBandar Abbas, southern Iran

Woman in Saudi Arabia wearing a niqab

Woman in Yemen wearing a niqab

A woman wearing a niqab in the United Arab Emirates

[Egypt

The niqab in Egypt has a complex and long history. On 8 October 2009, Egypt's top Islamic school and the world's leading school of Sunni Islam, Al-Azhar, banned the wearing of the niqab in classrooms and dormitories of all its affiliate schools and educational institutes.^[32]

Iran

The Niqab was traditionally worn in Southern Iran from the arrival of Islam until the end of the Qajar era. There were many regional variations of Niqab, which were also called Ruband or Pushiye.

The 20th century ruler, Reza Shah, banned all variations of face veil in 1936, as incompatible with his modernistic ambitions. Reza Shah ordered the police to arrest women who wore the niqab and to remove their face veils by force. This policy outraged the clerics who believed it was obligatory for women to cover their faces. Many women gathered at the Goharshad Mosque in Mashhad with their faces covered to show their objection to the niqab ban.^[33]

Between 1941 and 1979 wearing the niqab was no longer against the law, but it was considered by the government to be a “badge of backwardness." During these years, wearing the niqab and chador became much less common and instead most religious women wore headscarves only. Fashionable hotels and restaurants refused to admit women wearing niqabs. High schools and universities actively discouraged or even banned the niqab, though the headscarf was tolerated.^[34]

After the new government of 'Islamic Republic' was established, the niqab was not enforced by officials.

In modern Iran, the wearing of niqab is not common and is only worn by certain ethnic minorities and a minority of Arab Muslims in the southern Iranian coastal cities, such as Bandar Abbas, Minab and Bushehr. Some women in the Arab-populated province of Khuzestan still wear niqab.

Saudi Arabia

Saudi women are not required by law to wear the niqab. However, in cities such as Riyadh, Mecca, Medina and Abha many women observe niqab as tradition. Women may be harassed by the religious police if they do not cover their faces. Dammam and Jeddah, as the most liberal cities of Saudi Arabia, are exceptions.

The Saudi niqab usually leaves a long open slot for the eyes; the slot is held together by a string or narrow strip of cloth.^[35] Many also have two or more sheer layers attached to the upper band, which can be worn flipped down to cover the eyes. Although a person looking at a woman wearing a niqab with an eyeveil would not be able to see her eyes, she would still be able to see out through the thin fabric. In 2008, the religious authority in Mecca, Mohammad Habadan called on women to wear veils that reveal only one eye, so that women would not be encouraged to use eye make-up.[36]

According to Saudi Arabia's Shariah law, women's clothing should meet the following conditions:

§                    Women must cover their entire body, but they are allowed to expose one or both eyes in necessity.

§                    Women should wear abaya and a headscarf thick enough to conceal what is underneath, and the abaya should be loose-fitting.

§                    Women should not wear brightly coloured clothes or clothes that are adorned so that they may attract men's attention.^[37]

Syria

1,200 niqab-wearing teachers were transferred to administrative duties in the summer of 2010 in Syria because the face veil was undermining the secular policies followed by the state as far as education is concerned.^[38] In the near future, other ministers are expected to do the same as Ali Saad, the Syrian Minister of Education.^[38] Also, in the summer of 2010, students wearing the Niqab were prohibited from registering for university classes. The ban was associated with a move by the Syrian government to re-affirm Syria's traditional secular atmosphere.^[39]

On 6 April 2011 it was reported that teachers would be allowed to once again wear the niqab.^[40]

Yemen

Since antiquity, the Arab tradition of wearing the niqab has been practiced by women living in Yemen.^[41] Traditionally, girls begin wearing veils in their teenage years.^[42] [43] Acceptance of the niqab is not universal in Yemen. Senior member of the Al-Islah political party, Tawakel Karman, removed her niqab at a human rights conference in 2004 and since then has called for "other women and female activists to take theirs off".^[44]

Enforcement, encouragement and bans

Enforcement

Covering the face was enforced by the Taliban regime with the traditional Afghan face veil called the burkha.^[45] While some women appeared to embrace the coercive rules, others protested.

Non-governmental enforcement of niqab is found in many parts of the Muslim world. In Saudi Arabia, all Saudi Muslim women are required to wear theniqab in cities such as Mecca, Medina and Taif. In other cities such as Dammam and Abha, women are not required to wear it by law but it remains de facto obligatory. In southern cities also, most women observe niqab. The Saudi niqab usually leaves a long open slot for the eyes; the slot is held together by a string or narrow strip of cloth. In 2008, the religious authority in Mecca, Mohammad Habadan called on women to wear veils that reveals only one eye, so that women would not be encouraged to use eye makeup.^[36]

Politics

The niqab has had a significant role for women in the West Bank during the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Many Palestinian women, especially students, have worn white niqabs during protests against Israel's actions.^[46][47] These women often wear green banners with Arabic messages in them. Female candidates from the Hamas party in the 2006 Palestinian parliamentary elections campaigned in niqabs, even in photographs. Since Hamas took over Gaza strip during the Battle of Gaza (2007), women have been wearing Niqab in large numbers.^[48][49]

Sultaana Freeman gained national attention in 2003 when she sued the U.S. state of Florida for the right to wear a niqab for her driver's license photo.^[50]However, a Florida appellate court ruled that there was no violation in the state requiring her to show her face to a camera in a private room with only a female employee to take the picture, in exchange for the privilege of driving.^{[citation needed]}

In 2005, a non-Muslim student at Eastern Michigan University spent a semester wearing a niqab for a class project (she referred to the face veil as a 'burqa', a term which can be used to describe both the full, "gulf-style" niqab she wore and the Afghan style head-to-toe garment). Her experiences, such as feeling like no one wanted to be near her, led her to conclude that conservative Muslim dress is disapproved of in the United States.^[51]

The niqab is outlawed in Tunisia. In Turkey, where the overwhelming majority of the population is Muslim, the traditional womenswear in cities at the turn of the twentieth century was called çarşaf (an outer garment similar to the Iranian chador) which would be accompanied by a piece of semi-transparent clothing to cover the lower face, called peçe. Although this combination is still being worn in some localities, the practice of covering the face has largely died off. In Turkey today, niqabi women, just like women wearing hijab, cannot work as public servants, neither can they continue studies at schools, including the private schools. Although there is no single law banning niqab at private companies, it would be nearly impossible for a niqabi woman to find work^{[citation needed]} .

In February 2010, an Arab country's ambassador to Dubai had his marriage annulled after discovering that his bride was cross-eyed and had facial hair. The woman had worn a niqab on the occasions that the couple had met prior to the wedding. The ambassador informed the Sharia court that he had been deliberately deceived by the bride's mother, who had shown him photographs of the bride's sister. He only discovered the problem when he lifted the niqab to kiss his bride. The court annulled the marriage, but refused a claim for compensation.^[52][53][54]

Europe

Main article: Islamic dress in Europe

Woman in Bosnia and Herzegovinawearing a niqab, c. 1906

Although the burqa is a more emphatic symbol, the niqab has also been prominent in political controversies on Islamic dress in Europe.

In socialist Yugoslavia wearing the niqab or forcing women to wear it were forbidden in order to prevent the subjugation of women to men.

The niqab is very common in Bosnia and Herzegovina today, especially in Sarajevo.^[55]

The Netherlands government plans a legal ban on face-covering Islamic clothing, popularly described as the 'burqa ban', which includes the niqab.^[56]

On 29 April 2010, the Belgian Chamber of Representatives adopted a law prohibiting people to wear "attire and clothing masking the face in such a way that it impairs them to be recognizable". The penalty for violating this directive can run from up to 14 days imprisonment and a 250 euro fine. Even though there is no direct mention of the burqa or niqab, this decision practically does prohibit its use in public spaces. This new law has spurred a lot of anger amongst members of the traditional Islamist community.

In the United Kingdom, comments by Jack Straw, MP started a national debate over the wearing of the "veil" (niqab), in October 2006. This was further inflamed by extensive media coverage of the case of Aishah Azmi, a teaching assistant in Dewsbury, West Yorkshire, who lost her appeal against suspension from her job for wearing the niqab while teaching English to young children whose first language is different. It was decided that being unable to see her face prevented the children from learning effectively. Azmi argued that it was helping the children understand different people's beliefs.^[57]

On 13 July 2010 France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a ban on wearing burqa-style Islamic veils. The legislation forbids face-covering Muslim veils in all public places in France and calls for fines or citizenship classes, or both. The bill also is aimed at husbands and fathers — anyone convicted of forcing someone else to wear the garb risks a year of prison and a fine, with both penalties doubled if the victim is a minor. In Italy, a law issued in 1975 strictly forbids wearing any dress or supply that could hide the face of a person. Penalties (fines and imprisonment) are provided for such behaviour.

In 2012 in Norway, a professor at the University of Tromsø denied a student's use of niqab in the classroom.^[58] The professor claimed that Norway's parliament has granted each teacher the right to deny the use of niqab in his/her classroom.^[58]

North America

United States

The niqab in its extreme forms is uncommon in the US, though sometimes seen in larger cities.^[59] In 2002, Sultaana Freeman, (aka Sandra Keller, who converted to Islam in 1997 when marrying a Muslim man) sued the U.S. state of Florida for the right to wear a niqab for her driver's license photo.^[50] However, a Florida appellate court ruled that there was no violation in the state requiring her to show her face to a camera in a private room with only a female employee to take the picture, in exchange for the privilege of driving. The prevailing view in Florida is currently that hiding one's face on a form of photo identification defeats the purpose of having the picture taken,^[50] although 15 other states (including Arkansas, California, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, and Louisiana) have provisions that allow for driver's licenses absent of an identifying photograph in order to accommodate individuals who may have a religious reason to not have a photograph taken.^[60]

Canada

Elections Canada, an independent agency responsible for elections and referendums, stated that Muslim women can cover their faces while voting. The decision was criticized by all major political parties of Canada except the New Democrats who did not oppose this decision.^[61]

More recently the Conservative Government has introduced legislation which would bar Muslim women from voting if they show up at polling stations with a veiled face. This law was proposed in the wake of the Government's recent dispute with Elections Canada, which has refused to bar people with veiled faces from polling places.^{[citation needed]} The niqab became an issue in the 2007 election in Quebec after it became public knowledge that women wearing the niqab were allowed to vote under the same rules as electors who did not present photo ID, namely, by sworn oath in the presence of a third party who could vouch for their identity. The chief electoral officer received an overwhelming number of complaints that this policy was too accommodating of cultural minorities (a major theme in the election), and had to be accompanied by bodyguards due to death threats. All three major political parties were against the policy, with the Parti Québécois andAction démocratique du Québec vying for position as most opposed. The policy was soon changed to require all voters to show their face, even if they did not carry photo ID. However, Quebec residents who wear the niqab stated that they had no issue with showing their faces for official purposes, such as voting.^[62] Salam Elmenyawi of the Muslim Council of Montreal estimated that only 10 to 15 Muslim voters in all of the province wear the niqab, and that since their veils have become controversial, most would probably not vote due to threats and concern for their safety.^[63]

In October 2009, the Muslim Canadian Congress called for a ban on burqa and niqab (though not the hijab), saying that they have "no basis in Islam."^[64] Spokesperson Farzana Hassan cited public safety issues, such as identity concealment, as well as gender equality, stating that wearing the burqa and niqab is "a practice that marginalizes women."^[64]

In December 2011, Citizenship and Immigration Minister Jason Kenney announced a policy directive that Muslim women must remove niqabs throughout the citizenship ceremony where they declare their Oath of Allegiance.^[65]